文章
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作者
齊米制度和奧斯曼帝國—對非穆斯林的鎮壓
皮埃爾·A·小克萊夫(Pierre A. Kleff,Jr).҂(https://rkus-ott.academia.edu/PierreKleff?swp=tc-au-35652596)
引言
中東的歷史,特別是奧斯曼帝國的歷史,在美國的教育中很少受到關注。西方研究人員對奧斯曼帝國的研究,無論是涉及基督徒西方和穆斯林東方之間的真實的或想像的討論,其都帶有敵意。一些新近奧斯曼主義歷史學家認為,這種以歐洲為中心的方法是幼稚的,並且他們還鼓吹對奧斯曼歷史[i]的誤解。無論一個人的學術傾向如何,宗教仍然是推動歐洲和奧斯曼帝國之間的關係的主要因素。
在這場衝突中,基督徒認為伊斯蘭將猶太人、基督徒和其他非穆斯林置於從屬地位。這一指控是有根據的。阿布哈桑·馬瓦迪(Abu’l Hasan al-Mawardi ,公元972—1058年)是由阿拔斯(Abbasid)哈里發(Caliph)卡伊姆·阿莫爾·阿拉(al-Qaim bi Amr Allah)任命的巴格達的伊斯蘭法學家,他解釋說,非穆斯林必須皈依伊斯蘭,或者「接受作為一個受保護的齊米制度(Dhimmitude)群體生活—以致於安拉的權利,願他(安拉)被尊崇,『他使真教勝過[其他]宗教』(古蘭經9:33)」。[ii]
隨著奧斯曼帝國鞏固了穆斯林對黎凡特地區的控制,最初出於權宜之計和現實政治的影響,其對非穆斯林的容忍程度下降,當地非穆斯林人口的狀況惡化[iii]。曾經繁榮的猶太人和基督徒群體在法律上和社會上都淪落為「齊米人」(ahlal-dhimma,履行義務者)的低等地位。這些「受保護的人民」在穆斯林的土地上—達爾·伊斯蘭(dar al-Islam,伊斯蘭之家)—得到寬恕,並受制於《奧馬爾盟約》[iv]所規定的禁制。
本文論述了非穆斯林在奧斯曼帝國齊米制度下的經歷和壓迫:
ǂ 本文是一個摘自當前一個較大的研究專案。
҂ 皮埃爾· A·小克萊夫在北肯塔基大學蔡斯法學院(Chase College of Law)獲得法學博士學位,在山姆·休斯頓州立大學(Sam Houston State University)獲得文學碩士(歷史)學位。他是中央德克薩斯學院(Central TexasCollege)的政府、歷史和法律講師。
關於齊米制度的討論
齊米制度是一個穆斯林世界特有的社會體系:是一個處理對待少數宗教信徒(尤其是猶太人和基督徒)的組織架構。該體系以伊斯蘭的經文為基礎。要理解齊米制度的重要性,需要認識到伊斯蘭國的意識形態性質。著名的巴基斯坦伊斯蘭學者阿布·阿拉·莫杜迪(S. Abul Ala Maududi)描述得很好:「伊斯蘭國是意識形態的。居住在這裏人被分為相信其意識形態的穆斯林和不相信的非穆斯林[v]。」伊斯蘭國被稱為達爾·伊斯蘭(dar al-Islam,伊斯蘭之家),其中有三種非穆斯林:(1)齊米人(dhimmis,契約民)是居住在穆斯林國家的非穆斯林臣民,並同意支付吉茲亞(jizya,丁稅)以換取保護和安全,並受伊斯蘭法律的約束;(2)胡德納(hudna,休戰)的人是那些在戰爭中戰敗後與穆斯林簽署和平條約的人,他們同意居住在自己的土地上,但受伊斯蘭的法律管轄,包括支付吉茲亞(丁稅);(3)穆斯塔民(受保護者,Musta'min)是作為使者、商人、訪客或伊斯蘭學生;這樣的人不必支付吉茲亞(丁稅)。應該敦促穆斯塔民(Musta'min,受保護者)皈依伊斯蘭,但如果不能安全返回自己的國家—稱為dar al-Harb(異教之家或戰爭之家,取決於翻譯)[vi] 。穆斯林穆夫提(muftis,伊斯蘭法典解釋官)認為,契約應該是主要給「曾受天經的人」,就是基督徒和猶太人[vii] 。通常來說,東方博士(Magi,智者)和瑣羅亞斯德教教徒都享有同樣的「特權」。[viii]
吉茲亞(丁稅)是伊斯蘭國家歷史上對某些非穆斯林國民—特別是契約民—徵收的人均年稅[ix] 。徵稅對象是成年男性,但婦女、兒童、老人、殘疾人、病人、精神病患者、修道士、隱士、奴隸和穆斯塔民[x]除外。選擇服兵役的契約民可以免稅,無力支付的人[xi] 也可以免稅。對非穆斯林國民徵收的稅收是一些伊斯蘭政體—如奧斯曼帝國—的主要收入來源之一[xii] 。在帝國的一些地區,如黎巴嫩和埃及,吉茲亞(丁稅)由基督徒或猶太人集體支付,並被稱為馬克圖(maktu)。在這種情況下,吉茲亞(丁稅)的個人費率將有所不同,因為群體會為無力支付的個人提供幫助。[xiii]
穆林法學家認為,吉茲亞(丁稅)是從對某些非穆斯林收取的一筆特別款項,(非穆斯林)以此換取穆斯林履行的保護其免受一切侵略[xiv]的責任。乍一看,這一理由似乎並不起眼。伊斯蘭學者、加州大學洛杉磯分校法學院傑出法學教授阿布·法德爾(Khaled Abou el Fadl)有不同的、批判性的觀點:「根據齊米人(dhimma,曾受天經的人)的地位制度,非穆斯林是必須繳納丁稅,才可以換取穆斯林保護以及生活在穆斯林領土上的特權。根據這一制度,非穆斯林可以免除服兵役,但他們被排除在涉及處理高國家利益的高級職位之外,比如擔任總統或國家總理。在伊斯蘭歷史上,特別是在奧斯曼帝國,非穆斯林確實佔據了很重要的地位,特別是在與財政政策或稅收徵收相關問題上[xv] 。」法律評論員葉夫根利亞·巴拉茲(Yevgenlya Baraz)在談到非穆斯林所擔任的職責時說:「雖然他們被允許擔任某些高級職位,如財務顧問或醫生,但他們總是被要求將這些職位低於穆斯林同行。」[xvi]
安托萬·法塔爾(Antoine Fattal)教授在其關於穆斯林土地中非穆斯林的法律地位的權威研究中,簡明地描述了契約民 的地位:
「契約民是一群二等公民。如果他被接納包容,那會是出於屬靈上的原因,因為他總是有希望皈依(伊斯蘭)的;或者是出於物質性質的,因為他承擔了幾乎全部的稅收負擔。他在社會上有自己的地位,但他經常被提醒自己低人一等…契約民絕不比得上穆斯林。他因為社會不平等而被剔除,屬於一個被鄙視的種姓;個人權利不平等;稅收不平等;在法庭上不平等,因為沒有穆斯林法庭認可其證詞,對於同樣的罪行,其遭受的懲罰比對穆斯林的懲罰更重。」[xvii]
撇開吉茲亞(丁稅)給契約民造成的財政負擔不說,審查其他歧視性做法也是有必要的。契約民被禁止—一般處以死刑—以下內容:攜帶或持有武器;舉手反擊穆斯林,甚至是出於自衛;批評伊斯蘭、先知或天神;皈依除伊斯蘭以外的任何宗教;娶穆斯林婦女或娶穆斯林為妾;或者,擔任任何對穆斯林有權威的職位。契約民有義務:與穆斯林分開住在城裏的特殊住所;房子比穆斯林的小;秘密地、默默地進行宗教活動;避免公開展示宗教物品(如十字架);而且,在服裝上也要有別於穆斯林。[xviii]
盡管讚揚了先知穆罕默德表面上的宗教寬容,謝赫·賽義德·阿凡迪·奇爾卡爾(Shaykh Said Afandi al-Chirkawl )承認對非穆斯林強加齊米制度(dhimmitude):[xix]
「生活在穆斯林社區內的非穆斯林人口通過保障其生命和財產的安全而獲得了和平和繁榮的生活,並被稱為『齊米人…』(ahl al-Dhimma,履行義務者)。先知在麥地那建立城邦的早期階段提出的基本指導方針,形成了穆斯林應該如何處理基督徒和猶太人的藍圖…」
阿爾·奇卡爾(Al-Chirkaul)熱情洋溢地讚揚穆罕默德對非穆斯林的寬容,但他容易地忽略了其對契約民強加的壓迫條件。有伊斯蘭經文支持歧視和嚴厲對待他們:「當打擊那些不信真主和末日、不遵真主及其使者的戒律、不奉真教的人,即曾受天經的人,你們要與他們戰鬥,直到他們俯首稱臣、規規矩矩地交納丁稅,並感覺自己被降服。」(古蘭經9:29)
摘要
作為「曾受天經的人」,猶太人和基督徒應該受到伊斯蘭法律[xx] 的保護。這種「保護」並不能確保穆斯林會善待猶太人和基督徒。他們低人一等的地位的一個象徵是,契約民有義務公開承認真信徒—穆斯林—的優越性。1858年,戈達爾神甫(Abbé Godard)在穿越奧斯曼帝國後評論道:「據說,在羅馬,猶太人從未在提圖斯(Titus)的拱門下經過,但如果他們在穆斯林的土地上也有如此長久的記憶和怨恨,我不知道他們還能走到哪裡去。」[xxi]
參考文獻
Muhammad Abdel-Haleem, “The jizya Verse (Q. 9:29): Tax Enforcement on Non-Muslims in the First Muslim State,” Journal of Qur’anic Studies 14 (2) (2012)。
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Najih Ibrahim bin Abdullah, “The Ordinances of the People of the Covenant and Minorities in an Islamic State,” Balagh-Cairo (May 29, 1988)
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Habib C. Malik, Islamism and the Future of the Christians of the Middle East (Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press, 2010).
S. Abdul Aka Maudadi, The Rights of Non-Muslims in the Islamic State (Lahore, PK: Islamic Publications, 1982).
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Samuel Shahid, “Rights of Non-Muslims in an Islamic State,” The Myth of Islamic Tolerance: How Islamic Law Treats Non-Muslims, ed. Robert Spencer (Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 2005).
B. Hallaq Wael, Sharī'a: Theory, Practice and Transformations (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009).
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Stefan Winter, The Shiites of Lebanon under Ottoman Rule, 1516–1788 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2012).
Bat Ye’or, “Dhimmi Peoples: Oppressed Nations,” The Myth of Islamic Tolerance: How Islamic Law Treats Non-Muslims, ed. Robert Spencer (Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 2005).
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Pierre A. Kleff, Jr. © 2017
這篇文章翻譯自Pierre A. Kleff, Jr.的在線文章「Dhimmitude and the Ottoman Empire – The Subjugation of Non-Muslims」
https://www.academia.edu/35652596/Dhimmitude_and_the_Ottoman_Empire
[i] Suraiya Faroqhi, Approaching Ottoman History: An Introduction to the Sources (Cambridge, OK: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 30.
[ii] Abu’l Hasan al-Mawardi, al-Ahkam as-Sultaniyyah (The Laws of Islamic Government) (London, UK: Ta-Ha Publishers, 1996), 28.
[iii] Cemal Kafadar, Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1995), 83, 90, 153.
[iv] David G. Littman and Bat Ye’or, “Protected Peoples under Islam,” The Myth of Islamic Tolerance: How Islamic Law Treats Non-Muslims, ed. Robert Spencer (Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 2005), 92. 《奧馬爾盟約》是哈里發烏馬爾·伊本·哈塔布(Ibn al-Khatab)和耶路撒冷的大主教索福洛尼斯(Sophronius)之間達成的協議。奧馬爾公元638年率領穆斯林軍隊進入這座城市。為了保護耶路撒冷公民—基督徒和猶太人—的生命、財產和敬拜的場所,索福洛尼斯同意以下協議:(1)所有契約民(dhimmis)必須支付吉茲亞(jizya,丁稅)或人頭稅;(2)契約民(dhimmis)必須在教會免費接待所有穆斯林士兵為期三天;(3)他們必須忠於穆斯林統治者;(4)他們只允許騎驢,只能側著騎;(5)他們被要求在穆斯林面前起立;(6)他們被要求穿著與穆斯林不同的衣服。同見Aziz S. Atiya, “The Covenant of Umar,” Covenant of Umar: Claremont Coptic Encyclopedia, ccdl.libraries.claremont.edu/cdm/ref/collection/cce/id/539; and, “The Covenant of Umar,” islamweb.net/en/article/200191
[v] S. Abdul Aka Maududi, The Rights of Non-Muslims in the Islamic State (Lahore, PK: Islamic Publications, 1982).
[vi] Najih Ibrahim bin Abdullah, “The Ordinances of the People of the Covenant and Minorities in an Islamic State,” Balagh-Cairo (May 29, 1988). See also, Paul Halsall, “The Status of Non-Muslims Under Muslim Rule,” Medieval Sourcebook: Pact of Umar, 7th Century? (January 1996), sourcebooks.fordham.edu/halsall/source/pact-umar.asp; and, Firas Alkhateeb, “Jerusalem and Umar Ibn al-Khattab,” Lost Islamic History (December 20, 2012), lostislamichistory.com/jerusalem-and-umar-ibn-al-khattab. 一些批評人士質疑「奧馬爾公約」歸因於奧馬爾·伊本·哈塔布。See e.g., Maher Y. Abu-Munshar, Islamic Jerusalem and its Christians – A History of Tolerance and Tensions (New York, NY: Tauris Academic Studies, 2007), 62-80.
[vii] 穆夫提是「一種解釋宗教法律的穆斯林宗教法官」 Webster’s II New College Dictionary (New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1999), 718.
[viii] Samuel Shahid, “Rights of Non-Muslims in an Islamic State,” The Myth of Islamic Tolerance: How Islamic Law Treats Non-Muslims, ed. Robert Spencer (Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 2005), 61.
[ix] Muhammad Abdel-Haleem, Understanding the Qur’an: Themes and Styles (London, UK: I.B. Taurus, 1999), 70, 79.
[x] B. Hallaq Wael, Sharī'a: Theory, Practice and Transformations (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 332-333. 穆斯塔民(Musta’min)是伊斯蘭歷史上一個社會類型,指的是暫時居住在穆斯林土地上的非穆斯林外國人。同見,Majid Khadduri, “Foreigners in Muslim Territory: Ḥarbīs and Mustaʼmīn,” War and Peace in the Law of Islam (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Press, 1955), 163.
[xi] Wael. See also, Thomas Walker Arnold, Preaching of Islam: A History of the Propagation of the Islamic Faith (London, UK: Constable & Robinson Ltd., 1913), 61-62; and, Muhammad Abdel-Haleem, " Journal of Qur'anic Studies 14 (2) (2012), 72–89.
[xii] Gad Gilbar, Ottoman Palestine, 1800 – 1914: Studies in Economic and Social History (Leiden, NL: E.J. Brill, 1990), 287.
[xiii] Stefan Winter, The Shiites of Lebanon under Ottoman Rule, 1516–1788 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 64.
[xiv] Khaled Abou el Fadl, The Great Theft: Wrestling Islam from the Extremists, Reprint Edition (San Francisco, CA: Harper One, 2007), 204.
[xv] Khaled Abou el Fadl, The Great Theft: Wrestling Islam from the Extremists, Reprint Edition (San Francisco, CA: Harper One, 2007), 204.
[xvi] Yevgenlya Baraz, “The Position of Jews and Christians in the Ottoman Empire,” Inquiries Journal 2(5) (2010), 1, www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/242/the-position-of-jews-and-christians-in...
[xvii] Antoine Fattal, Le Statut Légal des Non-Musulmans en Pays d’Islam (Beirut, LB: Imprimerie Catholique, 1958), 369-372. 安東尼·法塔爾(Antoine Fattal, 卒於1987年)是黎巴嫩馬龍派的法學教授,他的《伊斯蘭教法律法規》(Le Statut Legal de Musulmans en Pays d' islam)至今仍是分析生活在伊斯蘭教法下的非穆斯林(尤其是基督徒和猶太人)的基準。同見, J. Luis Dizon, “Dhimma Obligations and Restrictions According to Early and Medieval Sources,” Scribd (December 3, 2014), www.scribd.com/document/291169673/04-The-Dhimma...; and, Habib C. Malik, Islamism and the Future of the Christians of the Middle East (Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press, 2010).
[xviii] Bat Ye’or, “Dhimmi Peoples: Oppressed Nations,” The Myth of Islamic Tolerance: How Islamic Law Treats Non-Muslims, ed. Robert Spencer (Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 2005), 117-118.
[xix] Said Afandi al-Chirkawl, “Prophet Muhammad’s Treatment to Non-Muslims: The Birth of Religious Plurality,” islam.ru (September 20, 2014), www.islam.ru/content/story/prophet-muhammads-treatment-of-non-muslims-birth...
[xx] 穆斯林認為猶太教徒和基督徒是「曾受天經的人」(dhimmi),他們在先知穆罕默德之前接受了神的啟示,因此得到的啟示是不完整的。資料來源: Donald Quataert, The Ottoman Empire 1700 – 1922 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 177.
[xxi] Léon Godard, Le Maroc: Notes d’un voyageur, 1858 – 59 (Algiers, 1860), 32, quoted in David G. Littman and Bat Ye’or, “Protected Peoples Under Islam,” The Myth of Islamic Tolerance: How Islamic Law Treats Non-Muslims (Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 2005), 95.